Ancient Chinese Contributions

The world owes a lot to the Chinese for all the major contributions and innovations they introduced. For example, during the Era of Disunity (approx. 220-581 AD) the ancient Chinese invented kites, matches, umbrellas and much more (â€Å"Inventions,† â€Å"n. d. †). The Yuan dynasty brought us paper money, blue and white porcelain and several other contributions (â€Å"Inventions,† â€Å"n. d. †). The discovery of making gunpowder came from the Tang dynasty (200AD) (â€Å"Inventions,† â€Å"n. d. ); the list goes on. The most significant contributions came from the Han dynasty (approx. 202 BC-220 AD) introducing moveable rudder and sails, cast iron technology, wheel barrow, and the hot air balloon (â€Å"Chinese culture,† 2007-2011). More importantly, the Han dynasty brought to the world the manufacturing of paper, the compass and the production of Chinese silk (â€Å"contributions,† 2003-2012). The four most ingenious or innovative c ontributions are paper, the compass, printing and silk. Europeans thought of Chinese silk as elegant and traders would pay the same weight in gold for this high commodity. Silk was traded along the â€Å"silk road†, another ancient Chinese innovation, which stretched from the Yellow River valley to the Mediterranean, nearly five thousand miles long (Sayre, 2011, p. 224). The silk road was the doorway to the spread of ideas, religions and technologies to the rest of the world. The ancient Chinese taught the world how to harvest silk from silk worms along with paper making, glass making and printing. The first printing technique put to use was block printing, a very lengthy process, from the ancient Tang dynasty. Much time and labor went into block printing, but once the carved block is finished, the advantages of high efficiency and large printing amount made it very worthwhile (â€Å"Chinese culture,† 2007-2011). The printing technique was enhanced with moveable type printing during the Song dynasty by the inventor Bi Sheng. Moveable type printing greatly boosted printing efficiency by reducing block making time. Other advantages were, moveable type was smaller and easier to store and can also be used repeatedly, saving materials (â€Å"Chinese culture,† 2007-2011). We wouldn’t need printing techniques if we did not have the creative invention of paper, also brought to us by the ancient Chinese. Before the invention of paper, characters were written on animal bones, turtle backs or stones (â€Å"Chinese culture,† 2007-2011). The Han dynasty produced paper from fibrous hemp, which later, improvements in technique and quality introduced by Cai Lun were made using silk rags, hemp and tree bark. His method, although now simplified, is still used today (Sayre, 2011, p. 226). It is hard to imagine the world without this ingenious invention. Everything we learn comes from some form of media printed on paper, whether it’s a book, magazine, newspaper, encyclopedia or journal. Can you imagine all of us walking around with our clay I Pads? The compass is another great contribution to the world by the ancient Chinese. It was used primarily for religious purposes to determine if a building being constructed was facing the right direction so it could be in perfect harmony with nature. The early compass resembled a wooden circle which had a number of marks on it along with a magnetic spoon on the top (â€Å"contributions,† 2003-2012). Today’s compass is probably the most important navigation tool we have. A mariner wouldn’t dare set out to sea without a compass, nor would a pilot take a flight without a compass, for fear of getting lost. Of all the many contributions given us by the ancient Chinese, the one I could not live without would be the combination of printing and paper. How would I learn without being able to research a book or reference an encyclopedia? In my career, it takes a reference manual to complete a project or task safely and properly. I would miss being able to sit down and read a relaxing novel or magazine in my spare time. I just cannot imagine not having this wonderful contribution. I praise the ancient Chinese for all they have given us.

Lifestyle Disease

Definition of Lifestyle disease Lifestyle disease: A disease associated with the way a person or group of people lives. Lifestyle diseases include atherosclerosis, heart disease, and stroke; obesity and type 2 diabetes; and diseases associated with smoking and alcohol and drug abuse. Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, colon cancer, and premature mortality. ‘Lifestyle diseases’ such as heart disease, some cancers and diabetes, which are no longer a problem just in wealthy nations.Globally 14. 2 million people between the ages of 30-69 years die prematurely each year from these diseases. These diseases have emerged as bigger killers than infectious or heridetary ones. Risk factors for these diseases include tobacco use, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity. Today we will take look at the most common lifestyle diseases that you need to take care. Some of the diseases which occur are due to the wrong lifestyle.They are mainly due to the drugs, tobacco smoking and chewing, alcohol consumption, lack of physical activities, heavy junk food, over tension, no social life, lot of traveling, no specific eating habits and changes in eating hours, etc. It was observed that in many European countries in second half of the 20th century, people changed their food habits. They started consuming more and more meat, diary products, Alcoholic beverages; they had reduced the consumption of bread, potatoes, rice, and maize flour.This reduced the intake of essential nutrients which were beneficial for the body at the same time they reduced doing physical exercises. This created an increase in ‘Cancer' percentage amongst the masses. Due to large consumption of junk food and doing less exercises many started suffering from various heart aliments. Some of the common disorders and diseases amongst the masses due to wrong lifestyle are:- 1) Alzheimer's 2) Asthma 3) Cancer 4) Type 2 diabetes 5) Heart disease 6) Chro nic renal failure 7) Depression 8) ObesityLifestyle diseases are known as silent killers. Due to industrialization there was advancement in the life of the people according to that lifestyles changed, they started consuming junk food and did a very little physical activity. In the long run it started creating problems. Prior to 1940's the main causes of deaths were Malaria, typhoid but after that due to changes in lifestyle more and more deaths occurred due to the Cancer, Heart attacks, Diabetes. Can we prevent these diseases? Yes, we can prevent those diseases by changing our lifestyle.Following are the some important steps which can counter-attack the ill-effects of our wrong lifestyle: 1) Performing regular exercises. 2) Balance diet. 3) Reduction in unnecessary food consumption. 4) Avoiding junk food. 5) Proper eating times and habits. 6) Regularly doing yoga to refresh your mind and body. 7) Doing Meditation. 8) Sharing your thoughts with your friends Summary Wrong eating habit s, less exercises, junk food are the main causes behind the deadly lifestyle diseases. More and more deaths are occurring due to this. Let's change this and enjoy a healthy life.

Project management-Scenario Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Project management-Scenario Assignment - Essay Example Measure of the extent to which a company’s benefits are achieved is known as value and this should be at optimum cost. As a manager of the battery manufacturing company, Bart Erry Ltd, I would employ risk management and assessment for evaluation of risks in order to take remedial actions in line with achieving these benefits and minimising loss of value to hazards and uncertainties. Risk profile is a defined set of risks that an organization is exposed to and describes when a risk should be considered acceptable as well as how the risk is affecting decisions of the organization and corporate strategy (Woodhead, 2001)1. Risk profiling involves outlining the risks according to priority and can be developed during risk analysis and used for the management of these risks. It enables the company to measure the likelihood of the threats occurring and the extent of disruption that can be caused by each type of risk. Profiling hence involves identification and quantification of risks where identification is simply finding or recognizing a particular risk that could affect the organization in achieving its goals. While in quantification the identified risks are evaluated and a data developed to help in outlining a disaster recovery plan (Loosemore, Raftery, Reilly & Higgon, 2006)2. The battery manufacturing company, Bart Erry Ltd are currently facing a number of risks such as legal suit may be filed against them by the local community because of the chemical effluent which found its way into the river and killed fish. They also face relocation from their current location by the government. They as well face health hazard risk not only to the local community but to the company too because they may also depend on water from the contaminated river for several uses. The company may also face destruction of property by the angry local fishing community whom have been affected because the effluent from the

Total and partial loss Marine Insurance Act 1906 Essay

Total and partial loss Marine Insurance Act 1906 - Essay Example Britain is the mistress of the seas, and its history is inextricably linked with the mastery of seamanship. The empire and its commerce were built upon transoceanic mercantilism, for which reason the UK has developed a relatively stable marine insurance law. Being well aware of the perils of the sea and the risks it poses to oceangoing vessels bearing valuable cargo, the development of marine insurance against losses due to oceanic misadventures is a natural development for a country like the UK. This paper shall treat specifically on the nature and types of losses that may be covered by marine insurance under the Marine Insurance Act 1906, and apply the provisions and jurisprudence concerning actual and constructive total loss to the case of Masefield AG (Insured) v Amlin Corporate Member Ltd (Insurer). The intention is to draw insight about the type of losses which marine insurance may or may not cover in the case of losses due to piracy. Marine Insurance Act 1906 s 56 The Marine I nsurance Act 1906 is a codification of the law of marine insurance as it existed at the turn of the century.2 It defines a contract of insurance as ‘a contract whereby the insurer undertakes to indemnify the assured in manner and to the extent thereby agreed, against marine losses, that is to say, the losses incident to marine adventure.’... (4)Where the assured brings an action for a total loss and the evidence proves only a partial loss, he may, unless the policy otherwise provides, recover for a partial loss. (5)Where goods reach their destination in specie, but by reason of obliteration of marks, or otherwise, they are incapable of identification, the loss, if any, is partial, and not total.’ 6 Actual total loss. From this enumeration, the kinds of losses which may be claimed against insurance are actual total loss, constructive total loss, and partial loss. Actual total loss is described in section 57, constructive total loss in section 60, and partial loss which is covered under sections 64 to 66, all under the Marine Insurance Act 1906. The Marine Insurance Act 1906, similar to common law, recognises only two principal kinds of loss – total loss and partial loss, pursuant to section 56 (1) and (2) of the Act. Actual total loss is defined in section 57 (1) as follows: ‘Where the subject-matter i nsured is destroyed, or so damaged as to cease to be a thing of the kind insured, or where the assured is irretrievably deprived thereof, there is an actual total loss.’7 This pertains to any subject matter insured, such as ship, cargo or freight. The first and last parts of section 57 originated from the observation by Lord Abinger made in Roux v Salvador,8 which constituted the basis of marine insurance was articulated in this manner: ‘The underwriter engages, that the object of the assurance shall arrive in safety at its destined termination. If, in the progress of the voyage, it becomes totally destroyed or annihilated, or if it be placed, by reason of the peril

The balance of power between the Executive and Legislative branches Essay

The balance of power between the Executive and Legislative branches has tipped in favour of a dominant Executive with negative c - Essay Example This means that no single arm of government should control the other two arms. However, this is not the case as seen in the study of the political system of Russia, United States of America and France, (Fitjar, 2010) Russia Russia emerged after the breakup of the United Social Soviet republic. It is made up of eighty nine republics and other jurisdictions. Russia’s political system is different from that of the United States of America and France. This is because the constitution, which was adopted in 1993 provided that Russia be governed by the three arms of government. However, the constitution did not give equal powers to all the arms of government. For example, the president is both the commander in chief of the armed forces and the chair to the Security Council. Vladimir Putin is said to have used this power to strengthen his office. The executive arm of the Russian government is comprises the prime minister, other cabinet ministers and the attorney general, (White, 2005) . The prime minister is appointed by the president and is the chair of the constitutional court which is the highest court in Russia. He is also the head of the Central Bank of Russia. Russia’s legislature is made up of two houses. The first house is the Federation council which is made up of 180 members who serve four years terms. The other house is the state Duma which is comprised of 450 members who also serve terms of four years. Both houses have different responsibilities. The State Duma has more powers than the Federal council which is viewed as a reviewing and consultation body. One important role of the legislature is to check and control the executive by making sure that transparency is observed in the operations of the government. However, in Russia the executive has dominated over the executive resulting in various consequences. The executive in Russia has dominated over the legislature in many ways. The president of Russia is allowed to appoint top government offi cials without consultation with the legislature. However, this is with the exception with the appointment of the prime minister where the lower house of the legislature should confirm the nominee for the position of prime minister. Despite this being the case, the president has the power to dissolve the lower house if they do not confirm a nominee to be the prime minister three times consecutively. This has resulted in the lower house accepting nominees for prime ministers since it faces the risk of dissolution if the nominees are not passed. It is said that it is through this that presidents like Vladimir Putin have taken advantage of this political system to empire their offices so that the government can be dominated by them. Another way that the executive in Russia destabilizes the balance of the executive and the legislature is by making sure they can control the federal council. The president does this by changing the process of ex official membership into presidential appoint ment. For example, in the year 2000 President Vladimir Putin replaced ex official members with those he appointed. This made sure he could influence decisions by the Federal Council in accordance with policies of the executive. Even though, the State Duma can pass a vote of no confidence for the government, the president has the powers to ignore the vote and even dissolve the house if they take another vote within the period of three months. United States of America The

Netflix Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Netflix - Research Paper Example The service also includes delivery of DVD’s directly at the customers place with no extra charges from the company. Netflix service has a user rating facility which helps viewer to rate the available movies and suggest recommendation according to the genre and preferences. For this report the target market is the class room group who are within the age group of 22 to 35 years. It can have a great potential for Netflix with the movie services which are in huge demand amongst the young generation. With the high-tech innovation in the modern communication industry the use of internet are growing at a very fast pace especially amongst the young age group who are more acquainted with the online services. Thus Netflix service can act as a very demanding service for the classroom group. Brief Overview Target market specifically includes the section of the overall market that would serve as the targeted customer base of the company. Under a targeting strategy a firm tries to select th e best possible customer segment as a part of its primary customer base. The marketing mix is then formulated that seeks to provide tailor made services to the customers to meet their demands (Armstrong, p.31). In the present case the class is assumed to be the target market segment. The age group of the target market is between 22-35 years of age and includes both male as well as female customers. The choice of the target audience assumes significance considering the nature of services offered by Netflix. Netflix offers a wide range of services that includes unlimited access to movies and TV programs that can be watched by the customers on a TV, tablet PC or a laptop. Considering the net savvy and large scale exposure of the target market respondents towards these devices the chosen target market can offer a wide range of services to satisfy the demands of the chosen target customer base of the organization. Netflix owning to its brand image and efficient customer service along wit h a unique and innovative product offering in form of contents shown can present a formidable challenge to its competitors in the market. The competitive advantage of Netflix also comes from the fact that the device sold by the company is compatible with almost 20 different devices. These devices are among the most popular gadgets that are used by the selected target market. The company recently announced that the device would also be compatible with popular gaming consoles that include X Box 360 and Sony Plantation. Customers can watch unlimited movies from a large collection of diverse genres by paying only 7.99US dollars in a month. In addition to this the efficient level of customer service also serves to make it the best choice for the chosen target consumer segment (Netflix, â€Å"Company Profile†). Marketing Mix The elements of marketing mix for a service oriented organization like Netflix includes the elements of product, price, place, promotions, people, process and physical evidence. Product The product portfolio for Netflix with regards to the target market audience would include a complete subscription package that would include the devices as well as access to a large number of movies that would be backed by a collection

The issue of globalization on a human resource management perspective Term Paper

The issue of globalization on a human resource management perspective - Term Paper Example From this research it is clear that there has been a growing relationship amongst the cultures, economies, and people in the world. Coupled with advancement in technology, interaction has been steadily increasing in the current world. Thus, the people, cultures, and economies are increasingly becoming interdependent of each for their continued survival. This is globalization with the world effectively becoming a big global village. According to Sparrow, Brewster, and Harris however, globalization is â€Å"a process whereby markets and production in different countries become increasingly interdependent due to the dynamics of trade in goods and services and flows of capital and technology.† In this case, the customers’ need for similar commodities and services drive the globalization of markets. With globalization of markets, a challenge in striking a balance between universal tendency in human resource management and the influence of different national cultures arises. Therefore, this expose elucidates the issue of globalization on a human resource management perspective. Edwards and Rees noted that, globalization necessitates attention to â€Å"more than conducting business across national borders but also entails expanding competition for almost every type of organization presenting management with the challenge to operate in diverse cultural settings.† In this regard, the global economy requires a company to exploit its human resources effectively through effective planning in order to gain a competitive edge over its competitors. Therefore, human resource managemen

Inland freight assisgment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Inland freight assisgment - Essay Example vernment concerning the operation of the system as well as regulating the issue of licences to the drivers with a view to keep the transport system safe and legal. This paper studies the depth of such regulations in maintaining the road safety and makes a critical analysis of the effect of the regulations on the operators and drivers in that direction. This paper also takes a role of a counter campaign against those criticising the operation of the LGV transport system as unsafe by analysing the regulations and at the same time bringing out the shortcomings or lacunae in the system. It also attempts to suggest some useful hints for the future developments. Note: To make the paper more user-friendly, some provisions have been adapted as such or paraphrased from the original Handbook prepared by Vehicle and Operator Service Agency (VOSA) and the regulations of other statutory bodies. With globalization of the industrial and business activities, the effective management of supply chain system ensuring the availability of the right material at the right time and at the right quality has become an immediate and important necessity to any business organisation. . This also necessitated the development and maintenance of new and speedy ways of inland freight movement systems and thereby to succeed the fight against the time to reach the merchandise at the destination at the proper time. In such an effort, due to human errors there are umpteen possibilities due to the improper maintenance of the vehicles or the carelessness of the people operating such transport vehicles that accidents do happen on the city roads and the highways. Under those circumstances it becomes absolutely essential to find out the cause of such an incident to fix the onus of compensating the aggrieved party and punishing the erring person. This analysis will lead us to so many debatable issues w hich will finally culminate on the government’s responsibility to efficiently administer the system of

Governance in the Cloud Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Governance in the Cloud - Research Paper Example Current governance strategies must be closely evaluated when translating to the cloud environment due to unique characteristics and difficulties presented with the use of the cloud. The term cloud computer has been thrown around all too often as of late and some tend to use it as a buzz word without fully understanding what the ‘cloud’ is. The term â€Å"Cloud computing describes Internet-based technology (either software, platform, infrastructure or a combination) that stores and processes information and is provided as an on-demand service† (Speed 1). It is the on-demand feature of this outsourcing solution that draws many to the cloud as it offers scalability and increased availability to clients. These advantages of cloud computing cut both ways as there are some concerns raised with each of these and in addition with the security and governance of the cloud environment. Cloud services offer scalability with the option to rapidly increase/decrease storage and processing power to meet current demands. Though scalable, cloud environments are not very flexible as they often upgraded, such as forcing users to adapt to new operating systems in the case of PaaS (Platform as a Service). This is not always the case as â€Å"some cloud services, such as Amazon’s EC2, offer a lot of flexible options; however setting them up and maintaining the configuration takes more effort and skill than other out-of-the-box offerings† (Speed). Despite this potential draw back they are still flexible in that they can easily be turned on and off at will without committing to large upgrades in infrastructure and/or software. This scalability and flexibility provide the potential for a great savings in the IT bottom line. To understand the basics of cloud economics we must consider the risk and reward of cloud services versus traditional IT cost over time. Traditional IT projects are an immense undertaking requiring vast amounts of resources; furtherm ore they fall into a lifecycle and eventually need upgraded or replaced at an additional cost. The advantage to cloud computing is that when an upgrade is needed or available it implemented in a relatively short time and a much lower cost, typically the client organization will see no increase in cost. The client organization can reap this benefit due to the economy of scale with the Cloud provider sharing cost across all users. Considering Fig 1 (Speed, p. 2) we can see the benefit cloud computing offers on a long term basis. When looking to upgrade software or infrastructure it is much easier for the finance department to handle a more balanced financial requirement vice the dramatic cycle that the traditional IT approach subjects us to. Using COBIT to Manage Benefit, Risks and Security in the cloud In this ever-increasing competitive world, companies are heavily relying on data and information to make complex decisions on control and risks that would be rapid and flourishing. How ever, for this purpose management needs to be familiar with the actions that should be taken and how to implement them. In this scenario, organizations require an objective method to recognize where they are and where they need to make improvements; they as well require being capable to execute management tool kits to observe this development. Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (COBIT) is a set or group of resources that holds all the information that a business would need to put into

Discussion a solution to the problem of the abortion Essay

Discussion a solution to the problem of the abortion - Essay Example However, some among them approve of abortions in cases of incest and rape, taking into account the psychological trauma and future inconveniences that the victims have to face. But many of them think that abortion cannot a real solution to such situations, and can only increase the difficulties for those who feel guilty and paranoid after abortion. According to them, life is the most valuable element that we have to take into account in such situations, and not the ever-changing psychological states of people. The group that argues that abortions should be legalized believes that it must ultimately be the choice of the woman to have abortion or not. The idea that abortion becomes a necessity to only those who are sex assault victims is contested by them, with data that proves that in most cases, failed contraceptives and other personal choices related to the maturity of the woman and family structure are the strongest reasons for abortion. If a woman is determines that she could not manage to raise a child, she should be given the basic human freedom to get rid of the fetus before it grows to a child. There may be risks involved in repeated abortions, which could be discouraged with proper counseling from health professionals. Legalization of abortion with strict guidelines which would determine the genuineness of the person who requests it could be the only solution to the problem. Hasty and uninformed abortions could be discouraged. There could be a team of people who explain for the psychological aspected involved o the concerned person. Moreover, health professionals could be given an opportunity to research the valid reasons for an abortion before it is done. They may ask the person who needs it to give valid reasons, and prove that she would be able to handle it psychologically. Denying a woman the right to choose when she could or could not have a child will violate human

Virtual Reality Essay Example for Free

Virtual Reality Essay I have chosen to research virtualization and the top benefits of this very topic. In doing so, I will detail topics such as the cloud, older applications, improved disaster recovery, and faster server provisions. I will utilize resources from the textbook, LIRN, and the Internet. Data center virtualization can reduce your costs on facilities, power, cooling, and hardware, simplify administration and maintenance, and give you a greener IT profile. If you’re thinking about migrating to a hosted data center or looking for ways to improve your on-premise data center, I have one word for you: virtualization. Offering profound changes to the way data centers perform, virtualization makes sense on multiple levels. Here are 10 key benefits of data center virtualization. 1: Less heat buildup Millions of dollars have gone into the research and design of heat dissipation and control in the data center. But the cold, hard fact is, all of those servers generate heat. The only way around that? Use fewer servers. How do you manage that? Virtualization. Virtualize your servers and you’re using less physical hardware. Use less physical hardware and you generate less heat. Generate less heat in your data center and a host of issues go away. 2: Reduced cost Hardware is most often the highest cost in the data center. Reduce the amount of hardware used and you reduce your cost. But the cost goes well beyond that of hardware — lack of downtime, easier maintenance, less electricity used. Over time, this all adds up to a significant cost savings. 3: Faster redeploy When you use a physical server and it dies, the redeploy time depends on a number of factors: Do you have a backup server ready? Do you have an image of your server? Is the data on your backup server current? With virtualization, the redeploy can occur within minutes. Virtual machine snapshots can be enabled with just a few clicks. And with virtual backup tools like Veeam, redeploying images will be so fast your end users will hardly notice there was an issue. 4: Easier backups Not only can you do full backups of your virtual server, you can do backups and snapshots of your virtual machines. These virtual machines can be moved from one server to another and redeployed easier and faster. Snapshots can be taken throughout the day, ensuring much more up-to-date data. And because firing up a snapshot is even faster than booting a typical server, downtime is dramatically cut. 5: Greener pastures Let’s face it: If you’re not doing your part to help clean up the environment, you’re endangering the future. Reducing your carbon footprint not only helps to clean up the air we breathe, it also helps to clean up your company image. Consumers want to see companies reducing their output of pollution and taking responsibility. Virtualizing your data center will go a long way toward improving your relationship with the planet and with the consumer. 6: Better testing What better testing environment is there than a virtual one? If you make a tragic mistake, all is not lost. Just revert to a previous snapshot and you can move forward as if the mistake didn’t even happen. You can also isolate these testing environments from end users while still keeping them online. When you’ve perfected your work, deploy it as live. 7: No vendor lock-in One of the nice things about virtualization is the abstraction between software and hardware. This means you don’t have to be tied down to one particular vendor — the virtual machines don’t really care what hardware they run on, so you’re not tied down to a single vendor, type of server (within reason of course), or even platform. 8: Better disaster recovery Disaster recovery is quite a bit easier when your data center is virtualized. With up-to-date snapshots of your virtual machines, you can quickly get back up and running. And should disaster strike the data center itself, you can always move those virtual machines elsewhere (so long as you can re-create the network addressing scheme and such). Having that level of flexibility means your disaster recovery plan will be easier to enact and will have a much higher success rate. 9: Single-minded servers I’ve never been a big fan of all-in-one services. Not only are you looking at a single point of failure, you have services competing with resources as well as with each other. Those all-in-ones are purchased to save money. With virtualization, you can easily have a cost-effective route to separating your email server, your web server, your database server, etc. By doing this, you will enjoy a much more robust and reliable data center. 10: Easier migration to cloud With a move to virtual machines, you are that much closer to enjoying a full-blown cloud environment. You may even reach the point where you can deploy VMs to and from your data center to create a powerful cloud-based infrastructure. But beyond the actual virtual machines, that virtualized technology gets you closer to a cloud-based mindset, making the migration all the more easy. Experience the benefits Virtual machines offer a powerful way to help relieve the typical headaches that plague administrator’s day in and day out. If you haven’t already begun to make use of virtualization in your data center, it’s time you start. Even if you migrate only a simple file server to virtualized technology, you’ll quickly see the benefits — and eventually, you may want your entire data center virtualized.

Impact Of Television On Sexual Behaviour Of Youths Media Essay

Impact Of Television On Sexual Behaviour Of Youths Media Essay INTRODUCTION Television, radio, films, newspapers, magazines, books, and other media are increasingly persuasive and influential in peoples lives around the world. New technologies such as the Internet, cell-phones and chat rooms, have changed the nature of the media experience in significant ways through the information they provide to users. The information obtained from mass media maybe constructive or detrimental and it is for that reason there is need to assess the impact it has on teenagers sexual behaviour by mainly focusing on televised programmes. Background of the Thesis Televised programmes do qualify as one of the convenient sexual educators in our culture but laden with contradictions. TVs accessibility and popular appeal make it an excellent instructor, offering a convenient way to learn about sex without embarrassment which usually arises between parents and their children when discussing sex related issues. While TVs sexual messages are not always explicit, they are abundant, and often provide information youth do not get elsewhere. Through its dialogue, characterisations, storylines, and themes, television presents adolescents with numerous verbal and visual examples of how dating, intimacy, relationships, and sex are handled. On the other hand, concern is often expressed that the messages TV sends about sexuality are limited, sometimes stereotypical, and potentially harmful. The concern is that the prevalence of sexual content on TV inadvertently overemphasizes the role of sex in male-female relationships. Of equal concern is the impression t hat television provides a one-dimensional picture of sexual relationships and sexual encounters are always spontaneous, romantic, and risk free. Thus, because of the prevalent yet limited nature of TVs sexual content, researchers and educators have become interested in/whether viewing of these portrayals is associated with distorted expectations, irresponsible sexual decision-making, and permissive sexual attitudes. Although the research in this area has been sparse in Kenya, research findings do associate amount of TV viewing with viewers sexual attitudes, expectations, and behaviour. First, greater TV exposure has been linked to viewers attitudes about sex and sexual relationships. Both heavy regular consumption of and experimental exposure to sexually-oriented genres, such as soap operas and music videos, have been related to expressing more liberal sexual attitudes, to being more accepting of sexual improprieties, and to more negative attitudes toward remaining a virgin. Together, these findings but not limited to, provide tentative evidence of a link between watching sexually-oriented programming and viewers own sexual attitudes, expectations, and behaviour. The effects of television consumption on teenagers behaviour regarding to sex are of increasing interest to educators, policy makers, program planners and the society as whole. The concern is that the extent to which frequent consumption of media with high levels of sexual content and low levels of portrayal of responsible sexual conduct is a pivotal influence on young peoples subsequent sexual behaviour, including the responsible use of protection from pregnancy and disease. Research done in United States has demonstrated that young people are heavy consumers of sexually- oriented media including TV, both broadcast and cable channels, videos, movies, magazines, and, more recently, the internet. The researcher acknowledges that the above mentioned relationship cannot be generalised across cultures especially Kenya and United States, however televised programmes do carry sexual content across board. Content analyses have also demonstrated that broadcast television contains a high, growing and increasingly explicit dose of sexual messages, and that a proportion of such messages display or model either restraint or contraceptive use. However, scientific evidence has not yet established a causal relationship between exposure to sexual content in the media and teenagers attitudes concerning sexuality and their own sexual behaviours. Therefore a detailed research that addresses the nature and magnitude of the role of television in teenagers decisions regarding sexual intercourse and protection from disease and unintended pregnancy might create data which could guide future policy making and programming, both in the government and in the media industries. Statement of the Problem The role of television as a sexual educator in our culture is perceived to be inappropriate. On the one hand, televisions accessibility and popular appeal as an excellent instructor, does offer a convenient way to learn about sex and sexual behaviours without embarrassment. While televisions sexual messages are not necessarily visually explicit (which can be either non-verbal or verbal cues), they often provide information that teenagers may not receive elsewhere. One dimension of involvement to be considered is viewing motivation, or viewers expected uses of television. People use and select media (television) to gratify specific needs, and that specific uses lead to differences in behaviour and outcomes. According to this construct, people exhibit varying levels of activity when using the media, differing in their selectivity, attention to, and involvement with the content viewed. However, while the expectation is that the effect of television content will therefore depend on ones level of active involvement. It is argued that facilitative activity, which includes selectivity, attention, and involvement, is more likely to enhance television effects on sexual behaviour, whereas inhibitory activity, which includes avoidance, distraction, and scepticism, should deter teenagers involvement in sexual activities. Focusing on the two dimensions of facilitative activity and inhibitory activity, the researcher seeks to determine to what extent televi sion viewing impact on teenagers sexual behaviour. Thesis Objectives In order to achieve the purpose of the study which is to determine the impact of television on the sexual behaviour of the youth by exploring aspects of television use that are associated with teens sexual behaviours and expectations, hence the research has based its objectives on: To investigate whether television content affects the sexual beliefs and behaviour of the youth To investigate what sexual content the youth pay attention to and how they interpret what the see and hear. To investigate whether television as a form of media can be used to promote responsible sexual behaviour Thesis Questions What sexual content do teenagers pay attention to, and how do they interpret what they see and hear? Do sexual media content affect teenagers sexual beliefs and behaviour? Can the mass media be used to promote responsible sexual behaviour among teenagers? Hypotheses The study will test the following hypotheses; Sexual behaviour among the youth is influenced by what they see on television. Television is appropriate channel to educate the youth on responsible sexual behaviours. Television has become a peer to the youth. Limitation of the Thesis For comparison reasons, the research is limited to researches done on the similar topic on argument impact of television on the sexual behaviour of youths. The study sample of teenagers between the age of 15 to 17 living in Starehe constituency may not give a fully representation of the each and every youth in the country. Its important to note that there no readily available research or documented information regarding to television viewing among teenagers in Kenya which would have added value to this research. The study is limited in collection of primary data specifically in interviews and questionnaires. The question of whether the respondents will accept appointments, attend, answer and return the questionnaires in good time is delimitation to the research. It is important to mention that not all respondents will be able to reply to the questionnaires adequately due to reasons beyond the researchers control, while some may have clerical errors. Concerted efforts will be ensured for better response and retrieval of important information from relevant sources. Motivation This study is important for Kenyan society, in understanding the impact of television on the sexual behaviours of youths. Furthermore, the information attained in this study could also help in understanding sexual decisions that are made by youths. As the country and the world as a whole are working towards combating the HIV and AIDS epidemic, it is imperative to try and understand the different aspects (peers, parents, television, as well as the media as a whole) that contribute to such decisions, particularly since statistics have highlighted that they are more vulnerable to being infected and are at the risk of experiencing teenage pregnancy. Thesis Structure The thesis will be segmented in chapters; the first chapter will concentrate on the sociological analysis of the topic whereby the study will look at the problem, its root-cause and what has been done by other researchers on teenagers sexual attitudes and behaviour regarding to what they watch on televised media. In this particular chapter the study will look at various communication and psychological development theories which tend to explain teenage sexuality. The subsequent chapter or segmentation of this study will document the research methodology in collecting primary data, sampling of respondents, data collection and analysis. The study uses descriptive survey research design whereby the researcher will describe a scenario to a respondent who will then give in-depth response on the same. The research population is drawn from teenagers of age 15-17 years old whereby stratified sampling will be applied to select the respondents. The final chapter deals with elaboration of the communication strategies available such as injection theory and agenda setting theory followed by the justification of the communication theories through the research findings and details on the implementation of the proposed thesis. It will end with general conclusion based on the findings expressed from data analysis and discussed literature in view of thesis objectives. CHAPTER ONE Introduction This chapter deals with literature concerning previous studies relating directly and indirectly to the influence of television on adolescent girls sexual attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, this chapter furnishes a detailed description of how different researchers view the underlying assumption of this study together with a consideration of the different methodologies employed to conduct the various studies which have resulted in similar conclusions. This chapter further describes how television has influenced other aspects of adolescent life and behaviour. Although the study solely focuses on the impact of television, the study also describes mass media in order to broaden the perspective regarding media influence among adolescents. In addition, the researcher indicates how television influences other behaviours other than sexual. The reason of including other manifesting behaviours is to illustrate that if television is able to influence teenagers in this manner, it may also influence their sexual attitudes and behaviour. Teenagers and Sexuality Teenagers undergo adolescence which is viewed as a time of adjustment and is often characterised by turmoil resulting from issues regarding identity and sexual identity and orientation. A key period of sexual exploration and development occurs during adolescence. During this time, individuals begin to consider which sexual behaviours are enjoyable, moral, and appropriate for their age group. Many adolescents become sexually active during this period. Sexuality is a developmental milestone among teenagers with which each generation struggles. Sexuality encompasses behavioural components with boundaries of sexual activity moving in an increasingly permissive direction. Perceptions appear to be constant through the ages while only the circumstances change. An emphasis on individual freedom and rights-driven culture in societies may be influential in this apparent permissiveness. A number of factors which include media and the internet, urbanization, electronic communication, peer influences and the breakdown of traditional parental and community structures also play a part. Therefore, we look at these factors in more detail. Factors Influencing Sexual Behaviour There are many factors that contribute to and influence sexual behaviours among adolescents. Family structure, age, gender, parenting styles, and type of parental communication have all been pointed out as factors that influence teenagers behaviour. However, family structure has been of particular interest to most researchers as more adolescents are being exposed to family disruption and are moving away from traditional lifestyles. The positive or negative impact of these changes on adolescents may also influence their sexual behaviour. Teenage sexual attitudes and behaviours are also influenced by: Biological and psychological factors within an individual this refers to age, level of maturity and gender Close relationships in family and peer groups refers to the people with whom a teenager enjoys near, close or intimate relationships. Socio-cultural contexts such as race, religion, school and the media refers to the kind of environment from which a teenager come from, their belief systems, the kind of education, as well as the kind of media (television, print media, internet, radio), to which they have been exposed. Consequently this research aims at determining television as an influencing factor on the sexual behaviour of teenagers in Starehe constituency. One potential but largely unexplored factor that may contribute to sexual behaviours among adolescents is exposure to sexual content in the mass media. The average youth spends one third of each day exposed to media, and the majority of that exposure occurs outside of parental oversight. Although mass media have been shown to have an influence on a broad range of behaviours and attitudes including violence, eating disorders, tobacco and alcohol use, surprisingly few studies have examined the effects of mass media on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviours. Theoretical Perspectives: Attitudes and Behaviours The potential for mass media to influence behaviour has been supported through a number of different psychosocial theories, hypotheses, and models. Although there is considerable variation in theoretical mechanisms by which media might affect adolescents sexual attitudes and behaviours, most posit that sexually related message content and behaviour act over time as stimuli to change consumer psychological, physiologic, and behavioural function. The study thus analyses two theories namely Social-Learning Theory and Cultivation theory to relate the sexual behaviours among teenagers. Social-Learning Theory Banduras social-learning theory provides ample evidence that even when children and adults have not actually performed a behaviour, they can learn by imitation. Bandura identifies three main processes involved in learning: direct experience, indirect or vicarious experience from observing others (modelling), and the storing and processing of complex information through cognitive operations. This theory suggests that behaviours are learned and that they are influenced by social context: Television is seen as an increasingly influential agent of socialization that produces its effects through childrens propensity to learn by imitation. The premise of Social learning theory is that it focuses on viewers personal connections with the portrayals via identification and perceived relevance to the self. The dimensions here emphasize on television characters as models of behaviour. The hypothesis proposes that specific critical portrayals may exert a stronger force on impression-formation and image-building than might the sheer frequency of television characters and behaviours viewed. This notion emphasizes the power of individual performances to affect viewers, most likely portrayals that speak to the viewer in some way. Banduras theory predicts that teenagers will imitate or model what they see on television when those television personalities are rewarded or are not punished for their behaviour, and are perceived as attractive, powerful, and similar. Indeed, evidence suggests that perceiving TV figures as sexual role models is associated with more permissive sexual attitudes, more extensive sexual experience, and great er dissatisfaction with ones sexual status and sexual experiences. Thus, it is expected here that the contributions of TVs sexual content will be stronger among teenagers who more closely identify or connect with the portrayals of television personalities. In light of the aforesaid, the most common examples of social learning situations are television commercials, movies and music videos. Sexual content displayed in these programmes may suggest that certain sexual behaviour renders teenage boys and girls more attractive and admirable. The theory further indicates that human sexual behaviour is governed mainly by social conditioning, rather than endocrinal stimulation. Sexual modelling presented on television teaches affectionate techniques, reduces sexual inhibition, alters sexual attitudes, and shapes sexual behaviours by conveying norms: for instance, which behaviours are socially acceptable and which are not. Cultivation Theory Cultivation theory posits that heavy exposure to mass media creates and cultivates attitudes more consistent with a media-directed version of reality than with reality itself. Up to this point, the dominant theoretical model supporting this research has been the cultivation theory. The cultivation theory (Gerbner, Gross, Signorielli, 1994), proposes that televisions consistent images and portrayals construct a specific portrait of reality, and as viewers watch more and more television, they gradually come to cultivate or adopt attitudes and expectations about the world that coincide with this portrait. Although this model has typically been employed to explain the impact of TV violence, it has been applied successfully to the cultivation of attitudes about gender roles, politics and marriage. Accordingly, if content analyses indicate that sex on TV is glamorous, prevalent, recreational, and relatively risk free, the cultivation model predicts that frequent teenage television viewers will be more inclined than sporadic viewers to hold and accept this perspective of sexuality. Media portrayals and messages might affect the behaviour of teenagers over time by enabling them to acquire new attitudes and behaviours or by changing the likelihood that they will perform new or previously learned responses. However, while the results reported thus far are provocative and informative, and do support the premises of this model, they offer a limited analysis of televisions role in the sexual socialization process. It is argued here that viewing amounts should be seen as only one avenue through which TV exposure might affect teenagers. Indeed, the processes by which television viewing shapes viewers attitudes and expectations are varied and complex, with several factors contributing at the same time. Therefore, to better examine contributions of television exposure, other dimensions of viewing need to be considered. In particular, a key element missing has been the role of viewer involvement. The study believes that teenagers perceptions of the portrayals and their connections with the material are likely to be critical factors in the socialization process. Drawing on the premises of several theoretical perspectives, I have outlined four aspects of viewer involvement which I believe may play an important role. It is my argument that teenagers who feel more connected with the material and who are more involved in the viewing experience will be most affected by it. To contextualize the Cultivation theory, the study discusses viewing motivation, active viewing and perceived depiction. Viewing Motivation One dimension of cultivation theory involvement to be considered is viewing motivation, or teenagers expected uses of television. Gratifications concepts contend that people use and select media to gratify specific needs, and that specific uses lead to differences in viewing behaviour and outcomes. While some viewing is believed to be more ritualized, in which a television is used to fill time, escape, or provide company, other television use is more instrumental, in which viewing is purposeful and goal-directed, perhaps driven by information-or arousal-seeking. In relation to the study, we focus on instrumental motives, more specifically on viewing TV to learn about the sex. The expectation is that the effects of TVs sexual content will be stronger among teenagers who are intentionally using TV to learn about sexual behaviour. Active Viewing A second dimension of Cultivation theory focuses on the level of active viewing. According to this construct, teenagers exhibit varying levels of activity when using the television, differing in their selectivity, attention to, and involvement with the content viewed. However, while the expectation is that the effect of TV content will therefore depend on ones level of active involvement, the direction of this effect is unclear. The suggestions are that active teenage viewers are more affected by televisions messages; others indicate that passive teenager viewers are most vulnerable. In reconciling this debate, a current perspective suggests that different ways of being active contribute to different outcomes. It is argued that facilitative activity, which includes selectivity, attention, and involvement, is more likely to enhance television effects, whereas inhibitory activity, which includes avoidance, distraction, and scepticism, should deter them. Focusing here on facilitative ac tivity only, the expectations are that the socializing effects of TVs sexual content will be stronger among teenage viewers who tend to engage in more facilitative activity. Perceived Depiction A third dimension of involvement considers the perceived realism of the portrayals. Although most television programs are fictional, there are many aspects of the portrayals (such as the clothing, physical settings, dialogue, and situations) that closely resemble those in real life. Consequently, most notions predict that televisions impact will increase the more realistic its content is perceived to be. Evidence supports this premise, with cultivation effects appearing to work stronger for those who view the portrayals as realistic. Thus, it is expected that the socializing effect of televisions sexual content will be stronger among teenage viewers who perceive its portrayals as more realistic. Influence of Television on Teens Television has proven to exert a large influence on peoples attitudes and behaviour. It has been found to reflect and possibly shape the attitudes, values, and behaviours of young people. According to them, this medium has become so influential that it serves as a teacher, often providing a common source of information to young people. The role of media in teenagers lives has raised concerns in many respects, such as violence, sexuality and body dissatisfaction. Although numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of media on various behaviours, including violence and aggression, social stereotyping, and pro-social behaviours, the systematic process of examining sexual content on television and its impact on adolescent sexual behaviours is in its infancy. Studies have demonstrated clearly that sexual content is pervasive in TV programming, movies, music videos, and magazines; however, much less is known about sexual content on the radio (including remarks by presenters) and the sexual content of video and computer games. It is surprising that only a few studies have assessed the sexual content of the television, and none have specifically examined this content in relation to teenager exposure. This is particularly troublesome given that what little evidence there is indicates that the television programmes may contain the most sexually explicit content. Studies on the effects of television on teenagers sexual behaviour have found that prime-time programmes and music videos, focusing on sex outside marriage, promote more justifiable attitudes about premarital sex. Two cross-sectional surveys have linked frequent exposure to sexual television content and transition to sexual intercourse. However, because time order was not clear in these studies, Ward and Friedman further state that it is credible to conclude that teenagers who were having sexual intercourse were also those most interested in sexual content in the media, rather than that exposure to sexual media was accelerating the initiation of their sexual activity. The single longitudinal study on this topic found that adolescents (12-17 years old) who watched television shows with more sexual content were more likely than those who viewed fewer shows with sexual content to have engaged in more advanced sexual behaviour, as well as sexual intercourse, up to one year later. Larson is of the opinion that the exposure to portrayals of sex may affect adolescents in developing beliefs about cultural norms as well. He states that television may create the illusion that sex is more central to daily life than it truly is and may promote sexual initiation as a result, a process known as media cultivation. Exposure to the social models provided by television may also alter beliefs about the likely outcome of engaging in sexual activity. Social learning theory predicts that teens who see characters having casual sex without experiencing negative consequences will be more likely to adopt the behaviours portrayed. Although televised sexual portrayals can theoretically inhibit sexual activity when they include depictions of sexual risks (such as the possibility of contracting an STI or becoming pregnant), abstinence, or the need for sexual safety, this type of depiction occurs in only negligibly of shows with sexual content. As a result, sexual content on television is far more likely to influence sexual behaviour among teenagers than discourage it. Teenage Sexual Behaviour in Kenya It has been documented that modernisation increases opportunities for sexual encounters and provides new models for sexual behaviour. The results suggest that modernisation favour transgression of the more restrictive traditions that existed decades. The scenario in Kenya regarding to teenage sexuality, little has been done to study the trends on the issue. Some of the close related studies done have mainly focused on sex education and reproductive health among adolescents. Problems related to sexuality and related behaviours seem to play a central role in the lives of many teenagers. In many parts of Kenya sexual debut begins early and in the absence of information and services. They state 7 out of 10 young people in Kenya have had sex before the age of 19. This high level of sexual activity is associated with risks such as HIV/AIDS, pregnancy, unsafe abortion, economic hardship and school dropout. Currently 5 in 10 girls in Kenya have begun childbearing before age 20 years. In most communities in Kenya, adolescents are faced with many of the same problems and violations of rights that may lead to sexual abuse. In their report, they have identified some reasons to explain this situation; the break down in traditional family systems in both urban and rural areas, influence of the mass media and modernisation as well as the lack of access to information and services are just some of the factors. In some cases they have pointed out that there is poor packaging of information for teens consumption hence having a negative impact on their sexual behaviours. In compounding this, it illustrates that not only do teenagers lack the right information and skills they need to make sound, healthy choices, but they are at particularly high risk of serious, long-term consequences of poor decision-making about sexual activity regarding to STIs, sexual abuse and early parenting. Narrowing it down to area of study, Kenya boosts over five national television stations and cable television. These stations broadcast various programmes featuring music videos, films, educative programmes, soap operas, all these shows run under various themes which may or may not have sexual connotations. Due to limited dedication to sex education among teens, the outcome is that these teens will rely on their own judgement or peer advice to make decisions regarding to sex. Thesis Critique Based on this review, the study identified many gaps in our knowledge of the sexual content of various television especially Kenya, the amount of exposure to it by adolescents, and the impact of this exposure. Moreover, there is a noticeable scarcity of well-conducted, scientifically rigorous studies that examine the impact of sexual content in the television media on sexual behaviours among adolescents, and there are no studies that have longitudinally examined the cumulative effects of sexual content in different types of media. It is critical that longitudinal research be conducted, and within the multilevel context of child development: that is to say, different groups of adolescents (defined by age, geographic location, tribe, domestic situation, and other variables) have different media diets, and identical diets may have differing effects depending on a number of factors. Based on this review, future studies should survey parents to assess the effectiveness of parental involvement, communication, supervision, and monitoring of media sexual content in the media in influencing the sexual attitudes and behaviours of teenagers. Also there is a need to evaluate adolescent and parent media-literacy education to determine best-practice interventions and their impact on youth viewing choices, interpretation of content, and sexual attitudes and behaviours: Intervention studies are needed to examine whether current media-literacy education has an impact on adolescent sexual attitudes, decision-making, and behaviours and how such programs may be improved to best protect teens. Throughout the study, there no are tangible researches in relation to teen sexual behaviours done which has taken into account early initiation of sexual intercourse, number of sexual partners, other sexual behaviours such as oral sex, dating violence among teenagers. Conclusively, this study categorically urges that there is need to address potential mediating variables such as puberty, peer factors, society and family factors (e.g., parental supervision and monitoring of media use); only in such ways can we determine the effects of television on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviours. Conclusion This chapter has focused on discussing the theoretical framework that underlines this study. A review of social learning theory and cultivation theory with the main emphasis placed on cultivation theory. The importance of observing modelling behaviour, attitudes and viewing motivations of teenagers is addressed, as is the fundamental assumption of social learning theory and cultivation theory. The modelling process, factors influencing observa

Food Safety And Food Quality Assurance Environmental Sciences Essay

Food Safety And Food Quality Assurance Environmental Sciences Essay The food industry/fish industry has a moral and legal obligation to produce safe and wholesome food. Food firm management must continue to be the first line of defense in the production and manufacture of safe food (Alli, 2004). The first step in food safety program is a food factory safety program is the establishment of a safety committee with full authority for assuring the manufacture of safe and wholesomeness of food. The second major safety compound which is important in any food firm are the methods on the food processing. The food plant must have strict operating specifications or every unit operation in the plant. Every food plant has different operating specification even it plant processes same products. The third key safety factor in every food firm is the hazards associated with the various commodities and/or the various processes or usually methods in use. Raw material that are use in food plant should be monitor by the quality assurance team. It is to reduce hazard on raw material. Furthermore, on food processing plant, hazard may also appear. Biological, chemical, and physical hazards can cause seafood-related illnesses. Biological hazards include Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, E. coli, and pathogenic staphylococcus. Chemical hazards include compounds such as Pb, carcinogenic compound, , which can cause illness from long-term exposure. Physical hazards include foreign objects in food that can cause harm when eaten, such as glass, hair, , or metal fragments. Food Safety and Food Quality Assurance Food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and eaten according to its intended use. The assurance that food may not cause harm, injury, or illness is determined by (1) all harmful substances present in the food have been eliminated or prevented from exceeding the acceptable level; and (2) the food has been prepared, handled, and stored under controlled and sanitary conditions in conformance with practices prescribed by government regulation (Alli, 2004). The fish industry, like many other industries, has used basic quality control programs, and more complex quality assurance programs and quality management systems, in its efforts to achieve food quality. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) and the Hazard Analytical Critical Control Point (HCCP) system can be integrated into a food industry, quality management system, or inspection and monitoring materials, products, and processes for food safety hazards can be part of quality control program. On implementation of food safety system, food industry policies should be based on food safety regulation. There are some food safety regulations as follows: Food safety regulation 1995 in the UK These regulations came into force on 15 September 1995 and implement the provision of the directive on hygiene foodstuff (93/94/EEC; section 12.3.2.1.) except for those which relate to temperature control (section 12.5.4.). This main feature of regulations is that proprietors are required to identify and control food safety risk at all stages in preparation and selling of food using hazard analysis (Forshyte and Hayes, 1998). This must be done according to the following principles: Analysis of potential food hazards in the operation. Identification of those points in the operation where hazards, may occur. Deciding which the points identified is critical to ensuring food safety. Identifying and implementing effective control and monitoring procedures at those critical points. Review of the system periodically and whenever the operation changes. Fish, shellfish and fishery products legislation in the EC Legislation Council Directive 91/493/EEC legislation is concerned directly with fish. This legislation aims to harmonize measures for the handling and treatment of all fish and shellfish at all stages up to retailing. There is the usual detail in food standards, this covering factory vessels and fish processing factory. The Council Directive, 91/492/EEC lays down health conditions for the production and placing on the market of live bivalve mollusks (Foshyte and Hayes, 1998). The commission Decision 93/51/EEC on the microbiological criteria applicable to the production of cooked crustaceans and mollusks shellfish is summarized in Table 1.1. The Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulation in the USA According to Forsythe and Hayes (1998), this regulation is divided into four subparts, as follows: General provision: This part is concerning personnel. No person affected by disease or boils, sores, infected wounds, etc, may work in food premises where there is a reasonable possibly of food being contaminated or other personnel infected. Building and facilities: the need for clean surround to factories is stressed so that pets are not attracted and food not contaminated. Factories should be constructed so that cleaning is facilitated and adequate working and storage space should be provided. Floors, walls and ceilings should be constructed well to allow for adequate cleaning, duct and pipes should not be suspended working areas where drip or condensate may contaminate food materials or food contact surfaces. Table 1.1. The examples bacteriological standards for fish products in several countries Countries Standard Product Microorganism Level EU Fish products 91/493/EEC and Commision Decision 93/51/EEC Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish Salmonella Absent in 25 g, n=5, c=0 Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish Other pathogens and toxin thereof Not to be present in quantities such as to affect health Whole products Mesophilic aerobic bacteria m = 10000 M = 100000 n = 5 c = 2 Crab meat Mesophilic aerobic bacteria m = 100000 M = 1000000 n = 5 c = 2 France Sliced fish, crumbed or not; fresh fish fillets, refrigerated Total aerobes Faecal coliforms S. aureus Anaerobic shulphite reducer Salmonella 50.000 per g max 10 per g max 100 per g max 2 per g max Absent in 25 g Shellfish, bivalves, urchins live Faecal coliforms Faecal streptococci Samonellas 300 per 100 ml max 2500 per 100 ml max Absent in 25 g USA Marshall (1986) Crab meat, fresh or frozen E. coli 4 per g max Shrimps, raw, breaded Viable aerobic bacteria 100000 per g max E. coli 4 per g max S. aureus 100 per g max Japan Marshall (1986) Frozen foods: Require only thawing before consumsption Total viable bacteria Coliforms Absent in 1 g Heated before consumption Total viable bacteria Coliforms Absent in 1 g Raw oyster Total viable bacteria;E coli 50000 per g max; 230 per 100 g max Korea Anon (1995) Fish product Number of bacteria Coliform E coli Negative for sterilized products Exection half-processed surimi Negative for half-processed surimi Source: Forsythe and Hayes (1998)Equipment. This subpart includes a very brief description of desirable features in the design and construction of food processing equipment. Design and construction must ensure that contamination of food with lubricants, fuel, metal fragments, etc. are avoided. Food contact surfaces must be corrosion resistant, made of non-toxic materials and be resistant to the action of any food materials. Production and process control. This subpart includes regulations for the inspection, cleaning and storage of raw materials, restrictions on the use of food premises, and equipment and regulations on the cleaning and maintenance of equipment. International implementation of HACCP concept HACCP is internationally accepted as the major means of assuring food safety as promoted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). The joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission describes the steps needed to implement the HACCP system. Before implementing a company should have minimum hygiene measures, for example, according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the appropriate Codex Codes of Practice and appropriate food safety legislation. These requirements should be well specified and documented, fully operational and verified in order to facilitate the successful application and implementation of HACCP (National Board of Experts-HACCP, 2002 in Plaggenhoef et al., 2002 ) The HACCP system which is science based and systematic, identifies specific hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying mainly on end-product testing (FAO/WHO, 1997). e. ISO 22000:2005 ISO 22000 is international standard that was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 34, Food products. This International Standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management system that combines the fol owing general y recognized key elements to ensure food safety along the food chain, up to the point of final consumption: interactive communication, system management, prerequisite programs, and HACCP principles. This International Standard integrates the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and application steps developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. By means of auditable requirements, it combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite programs (PRPs). This International Standard specifies requirements for a food safety management system where an organization in the food chain needs to demonstrate its ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that food is safe at the time of human consumption (ISO, 2005). 1.3. The Relationship between Prerequisite program, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) and TQM (Total Quality Management) Fish plants that operate with HACCP system will have the required prerequisite programs that includes GMP and some industry sectors in Indonesia include SSOP. The fish processing plants that do not have HACCP system, the GMP remains essential for addressing food safety. It is more appropriate for the HACCP prerequisite to be used instead of the basic GMP. The prerequisite programs provides more comprehensive coverage of the requirements relating to conditions and activities in a food plant than will the GMP. In food plants that do not operate with HACCP systems but have implemented the ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems standard, as a minimum the GMP should be part of the applicable regulatory requirements of the standard (Alli, 2004). All food plants need to develop and implement a program of GMP to address food safety requirement. Food plants that develop and implement the HACCP systems to address food safety also need to develop and implement the HACCP prerequisite programs. The activities for GMP or the HACCP prerequisite programs that are developed at a food plant should be documented as SOP. In addition, where monitoring, inspection, or testing is carried out as part of the programs, records should be kept as evidence that these activities are actually performed (Alli, 2004). HACCP is an approach to hygienic food production by prevention of problem (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). The hazards analysis portion of HACCP involves a systematic study of the ingredients, the food product, the conditions of processing, handling, storage, packaging, distribution and consumer use (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). TQM is an effort for continuously improving the quality of all process, products, and services through universal participation of all employees, that lead greater customer satisfaction and loyality, and improved business results (Sarvadan, 1992 in Pearson and Dutson, 1999). In many cases, the TQM approach has produced remarkable changes in how management and employees envision and interpret quality. The TQM approach requires a company to develop a strategy, involving all levels and functions of the company, which focuses on satisfying the customer. Everyone involved TQM will have a new mind set towards quality. Consequently, there will be a drastic and permanent change in the culture of company, giving company personnel an entirely new focus on quality improvement (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). The combination of TQM and HAACP, include GMP and SSOP, provides a total systems approach to food processing, encompassing the elements of food safety, food quality and food productivity (NFPA, 1992). This combine method will stress commitment, education, preventive and corrective action, statistical control, record keeping, verification and teamwork (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). TQM teams, responsible for developing and implementing HACCP, should comprise representatives from a variety of discipline and workers from all levels. This type of diversity assures effective evaluation of all areas that may have an impact on safe food processing (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). Summary In summary, hazard in food industry may be includes biological, physical, and microbiological aspects. They present new challenges to the industry and they must be eliminated during the manufacture of safe and wholesomeness food. All finished product must be audited for quality assurance through the marketing channel, and every plant must establish quality assurance department with full authority to uphold the policies and standards of food firm for the production of safe and safety. High quality foods that are safe are in great demand and the technology is available to any food firm to live well within the rules and regulation for the production of foods that are most acceptable.

Why Did the South Secede In 1860? :: American America History

Why Did the South Secede In 1860? The seeds of secession had been sown early in American history; quite literally with the fundamental differences in agriculture and resultant adoption of slavery in the South. From early days, the thirteen states had grown up separately, and each had their own culture and beliefs, which were often incompatible with those held in other states. The geographical and cultural differences between north and south would manifest themselves at regular and alarming intervals throughout the hundred years following the drafting of the constitution. Tension reached a peak during the 1850s, over the right to hold slaves in new territories. The Wilmot Proviso of 1846, roused bitter hostilities, and vehement debate turned to physical violence during the period of 'Bleeding Kansas'. The election of Lincoln, who the South perceived to be an abolitionist, in 1860 was the final straw, and the secession of seven Southern states followed soon after. Geographically, North and South were very different places. The pastures of New England were similar to those found in England, suitable for a variety of uses. Hot Southern prairie lands were perfect for cotton growing, a lucrative business at this time. Following the invention of Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, the South became increasingly dependent on this crop, and an entire society grew out of it. The society was one of wealthy planters, who led a life similar to the landed gentry of England, controlling politics and society of the day. In the fields laboured Negro slaves, usually only a handful per plantation, though larger farms were occasionally seen. In addition, there lived poor whites, tenant farmers or smallholders, who eked out a living from the land. This contrasted sharply with Northern society, where industrialisation flourished, creating wealthy entrepreneurs and employing cheap immigrant labour. Given the localised nature of media, and difficulties of transport two cultur es grew up in the same nation, remarkably different and often suspicious of one another. Crisis struck in 1820, when the North/South balance in the Senate was threatened by the application of Missouri to join the Union as a slave state. Southerners, aware of their numerical inferiority in the House of Representatives, were keen to maintain their political sway, in the Senate. The North feared that if Southerners were to take control of the Senate, political deadlock would ensue. Compromise was found in 1820 when Maine applied to join as a free state, maintaining the balance.

Hamlets Soliloquy - To be, or not to be :: Hamlet essays

Hamlet's Soliloquy - To be, or not to be Hamlet's "To be, or not to be" soliloquy is arguably the most famous soliloquy in the history of the theatre. Even today, 400 years after it was written, most people are vaguely familiar with the soliloquy even though they may not know the play. What gives these 34 lines such universal appeal and recognition? What about Hamlet's introspection has prompted scholars and theatregoers alike to ask questions about their own existence over the centuries? In this soliloquy, Shakespeare strikes a chord with a fundamental human concern: the validity and worthiness of life. Would it not be easier for us to simply enter a never-ending sleep when we find ourselves facing the daunting problems of life than to "suffer / the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune"? However, it is perhaps because we do not know what this endless sleep entails that humans usually opt against suicide. "For in that sleep of death what dreams may come / When we have shuffled off this mortal coil / Must give us pause." Shakespeare seems to understand this dilemma through his character Hamlet, and thus the phrase "To be, or not to be" has been immortalized; indeed, it has pervaded our culture to such a remarkable extent that it has been referenced countless times in movies, television, and the media. Popular movies such as Billy Madison quote the famous phrase, and www.tobeornottobe.com serves as an online archive of Shakespeare's works. Today, a Shakespeare stereotype is held up by the bulk of society, where they see him as the god of drama, infallible and fundamentally superior to modern playwrights. However, this attitude is not new. Even centuries ago, the "holiness" of Shakespeare's work inspired and awed audiences. In a letter dated October 1, 1775, Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, commenting on David Garrick's production of Hamlet (1742-1776) to his friend Heinrich Christian Boie, likens the "To be, or not to be" soliloquy to the Lord's Prayer. He says that the soliloquy "does not naturally make the same impression on the auditor" as Hamlet's other soliloquies do, But it produces an infinitely greater effect than could be expected of an argument on suicide and death in tragedy; and this is because a large part of the audience not only knows it by

Effect of Acids and Bases Essay -- English Literature Essays

Effect of Acids and Bases Experiments to Determine the Effect of Acids & Bases on Different Indicators and the pH of Common Cleaning Agents The aim of the first set of experiments is to find out and record the colour changes that are observed after a certain indicator is mixed with acids and bases to form a colour reaction. Once the selected indicator has been mixed with a acid that is both weak and strong and a base/alkali that is both weak and strong we are to record the colour and choose another indicator. The purpose of this experiment is to find out what indicators are sensitive to what areas of the pH colour spectrum, while also looking how Universal Indicator covers most areas of the pH spectrum generally but much less accurately. The aim for the second experiment is to find out the pH levels of different domestic cleaners and then studying the results. The main purpose of this experiment is that it gives an insight to whether cleaners are basic or acidic for our general knowledge. The only predictions I made on the first experiment was that know what colour would be shown after the reaction with the Universal Ind icator. This was because I already had the pH chart for this indicator with me to confirm colours vs. pH. I did make a prediction on the second experiment which was that almost all of the cleaners would have a different pH level. I thought this because all of the domestic cleaners are suited to remove different things such as grease and mould and for th...

Written Analysis and Communication: Report on Homesafe Limited

Homesafe Ltd. Written Analysis and Communication Instructor: Dr. Seema Khanvilkar Submitted By: Apurv Jain, D023 Shreyansh Jain, D027 Mohit Sejwal, D055 Vinay Pal, D045 Sahil Bhavnani, D006 Aman Jakhar, D030 Letter of Transmittal To, Dr. Seema Khanvilkar, Business Communication Faculty, SBM, NMIMS – Mumbai Date: 4th March 2013 From, Div D, MBA – I Subject: Report on Homesafe Ltd. Respected Ma’am, With reference to the meeting held on 20th Feb, 13 regarding the recommendation required on Homesafe Ltd. case, I am enclosing the complete report with our recommendations.We recommend that Holmes should help Jackson find a part time job in an external unrelated business. This will be a win-win situation for both the parties. Sincerely, Div D Executive Summary This is report about a challenging situation faced by George Holmes, the founder of Homesafe Ltd. an emerging start-Â ­? up. Homesafe was doing very well with business prospering and expanding demand. Holmes found himself in a tricky situation when Jackson, the purchase manager of his largest client, Dwason’s, subtly suggested that he needed an alternate source of income and if Holmes did not help, Homesafe might lose business with Dwason’s. Holmes as several options like offering Jackson direct help, help him find employment elsewhere or to let go of business with Dwason’s. We recommended that Holmes leverages his personal network to find Jackson a part time job in an external unrelated business. This will conserve the relationship between Holmes and Jackson and will be in the best interest of both. Report SITUATION ANALYSIS Homesafe Ltd is an emerging start-Â ­? up in the security space. It was a started as a single product company by an engineer, George Holmes in his personal workshop. Over the year this company has grown significantly and added an advisory services vertical oo. There is significant demand for the company’s products and the business has been p rofitable in both the years. Things are looking good with business prospering, Homes has had some of his old friends join him in his business which they operate part time. Holmesafe also recently recruited fulltime employees and shifted to new premises. Holmes has invested significantly in networking and has maintained personal relationship with his clients and till a certain extend relies on these relations to push his sales too. Most prominent of these, is his relationship with Jackson, who is a procurement manager at Dwason’s Ltd, Homesafe’s argest client. During the course of these years Jackson was also offered a job at Homesafe but refused to take it up as there was a conflict of interest. One day, Holmes finds himself in a tricky situation when Jackson calls him and hints at his bleak cash situation and how a little more cash will help him. Jackson also subtly threatens Homes that Dawson’s might start buying from Browns instead of Homesafe. Although there is enough demand in the market and the security segment is growing Homes still has to think weather he can afford to lose the contract with Dwason’s. Homes has to evaluate this situation carefully and weigh his ptions of how to deal with Jackson. PROBLEM STATEMENT Should Holmes help Jackson to find him a part time job? OPTIONS 1. Holmes hires Frank Jackson as a part time employee at Homesafe 2. Offer Jackson a part time consultant role in Advisory Services 3. Help Jackson find a part time job in an external unrelated business 4. Not providing Jackson any assistance CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION 1. Holmes Ltd. ’s revenues 2. Holmes Ltd. ’s relationship with Dawson’s Ltd. 3. Frank Jackson’s conflict of interest 4. Legal implications EVALUATION OF OPTIONS George Holmes hires Frank Jackson as a part time employee for the position of a buyer IfGeorge Holmes hires Frank Jackson as an employee in his company then they might lose their partnership with the Daws on’s Ltd. since earlier on Thomas, Jackson’s boss had not approved of Jackson working with a supplier. There would be a significant conflict of interest which might pose a legal problems for both Dwason’s and jackson’s too. Since major part of the revenues comes from there, the next year’s revenues would come down steeply. Their relationship with Dawson limited would also be strained hence we can rule this option out. Offer Jackson a part time consultant role in Advisory Services By choosing this option Holmesafe ould be able to mitigate direct legal implications and also the conflict of interest can be reduced. However this is also not ideal as Jackson still would be associated with Homesafe. From Homesafe’s point of view this arrangement will work because Jackson will get a job and their relationship with Dwason’s will persist. Help Jackson find a part time job in an external unrelated business In this option there would be minimal conflict of interest and virtually no legal implications. This will be a win-Â ­? win situation for both as Jackson will find an alternate stream of income and his relationship with Holmes will continue to be ordial. This way Homesafe will be able to continue their sales to Dwason’s. Not provide assistance for his personal problem at all Choosing this option would result in a priority clash between Holmes & Jackson and thus would prune the revenues of Holmesafe in coming years as Jackson would convince his superiors to end contract with Holmesafe & hire Browns instead. The relationship between Jackson & Holmes would thus end on a bitter note, thus bringing an end to symbiotic relationship. We can rule this option out too. RECOMMENDATION We recommend that Holmes helps Jackson find a part time job in an external unrelated business. This ill benefit everyone involved and will be the most ethical choice too. Holmes helped Jackson in the capacity of a friend. PLAN OF ACTION Holme s should explain Jackson how a Job at Homesafe would be counterproductive for everyone and how he will help find him a job at an external business. Holmes by nature maintains good personal relationships with people around him. He would have significant personal contacts that he can leverage and recommend Jackson to them for a Job. Also he is joined by several of his friends at Homesafe that can also help Jackson find a job. Together they can find Jackson a job in their personal network only.

Clientelism, Tribalism, and Ethnic Conflict in Africa

In this essay I aloneow firstly examine and put in down the comp adeptnts of the question. I allow unlikeiate and clarify the meaning of Clientelism, Tribalism and Ethnic impinge and deal with each(prenominal) of these as kick downstairs enterties. Although I go forth press each of them on a ordinate rear end. I aim also to show the mazy interlinked dealingships surrounded by the three themes, and conclude that because of this the primal short letter of the question is non tumefy agreed or disagreed with.My main pedigree provided, will be to disagree with the primordial question and countenance that Clientelism was a trip of Africas tradition long in the lead either nonion of advance(a)isticity and compound bend was cede in the classical. I will countenance empirical attest, which supports the inherent movement of Clientelism, and also show how it has strong link with Tribalism, in both its history and modern perpetuation.Tribalism that is a different thing and I agree with the central argumentation and advocate that modern Afri freighter tribalism and notions of heathenity were in the first place a direct dissolvent of colonial imposed modernism restructuring. For the final disassociate of my answer I will provide an argument that African heathenish difference of opinion lies mostwhere amid the two extremes, that it was puzzle in African cab atomic turn of events 18t in the lead colonial modernity and it was further exacerbated by the restructuring that colonialism brought ab by.In my conclusion I will further justify my arguments and advocate a thesis for future development in Africa on tribalism, ethnic encroach and nodeelism. Whether clientelism, tribalism and ethnic bout were a carrefour not of tradition preciously of modernity in Africa and a instance of development is a difficult and complex question in umteen respects, but one to which I have a strong argument. To prove this it would be practical to firstly squargon off what I shall mean by modernity and the type of development in relation to the main advancement, as it will defecate the crux of my argument.By modernity and type of development in Africa I will be focusing on colonialism and justifying whether clientelism, tribalism and ethnic conflict were flummox show up front the comer of colonialization or whether they fall come on(a)d from the bare-ass hostelry that restructuring colonial development brought with it. I remember by means of and through and through looking at African party in its modern context and perusal empirical data that it is unembellished to adjudicate whether the three main themes of this essay where exhibit before or a overboldr product. What is not so clear however is the complex linkages in the midst of and the contexts they op periodte in.I advocate for instance that it is impossible to separate out clientelism from tribalism, and that ethnic conflict i s fast link up to both of these. Due to this in order to justify and construct my argument I must separate out clientelism, tribalism and ethnic conflict and study them individually. Clientelism To train from what circumstances Clientelism in African emanated it is cardinal to define the term itself and what it means in African cabaret. Clientelism is also k promptlyn as athletic supporter-client relations/ governance, and in its modern organize is highly manifest in African indian lodge.This clientelism is an ex replace between actors who have mismatchedized balance of world-beater, one macrocosm weaker, and the former(a)wise being stronger. It is the patron who is the to a greater extent si rawy and the client who is normally the weaker of the two. The exchange between client and patron is form when the more agencyful patron offers something, be it unusual resources or protection to the weaker client. This weaker client offers something back end in return, perh aps support or separate services to the patron who is in a more dominating blank space. take form up with master(prenominal) ties of reprocity linking those who are related within networks of vertical relationships.Clientelism can be viewed on both micro and large levels as a phenomenon of African hostel (although it is evident elsewhere),and to assess from where this Clientelism originated from it is necessary to go through where it is birth in modern decree. In modern sidereal day Africa these patron -client relationships are most visible in the policy-making arena. I argue that clientelism although it is pervasive in African policy-making science did not emerge as a direct reply of colonisation, which most spate would view as the birthplace of modern African governing and policy-making institutions as a result of the restructuring of African society.Instead I advocate that Clientelism, although present in modern day politics was in place well before the colonia l time and was present in tradition and the age before whatsoever notion of modernity was in Africa. I debate clientelism was evident in the tralatitious African demeanor of life. Pre-Colonial African society was in terms sound outless. thither was no formal asseverate. African society was establish around a placement of patron-client relationships, which were the total core of society.Where on that point was no state there was no other system, in a vast continent holding various competing tribes and mountains in order for there to be a society arbitrating, defend and trade were all centred around these unequal deals between various networks. The cause relations of pre-colonial Africa were typically of patrons and clients. Big Men presided over involved networks of clientage involving reciprocal but unequal relations with small boys, as well as magnate over women and children and those held in the divers(prenominal) forms and degrees of servitude of pawnship and sla very.2 Patron-client networks as evident right away I argue are based around extended family (and later as I will discuss) tribal hard-coreties evident from handed-down African life. African commwholeies were pervaded by relations of domination and dependence, based on patriarchal baron exercised across differences of genders and timess, lineages and clans, languages and cultures. 3 The str etcetera of Colonialism and modernity had utilised these already existing patron-client relationships and used them for their own ends.The colonial administrators sought chief headmen and perpetuated clientelism by supplementing their measly salaries and earnings they assumeed from their official positions with monies gained from trade and other bonuses. (Berman) Chiefs and headmen were the essential linkage between the colonial state and African societies. This relationship typically took on a patron-client form, and had several important and contradictory consequences. 4 So I argue rath er than colonialism creating these patron client linkages it merely utilised them.I believe that clientelism at it is today stemmed from the traditional African societies. So to reiterate African society pre-colonial era although traditional was not so natural and traditionally genuine to be devoid of the practice of clientelism that we so readily inspect as subversion today. That is was present and a working exemplar for society. The other runs the risk, in reaction, of idealising the virtues of a pre-colonial era so-calledly devoid of corruption, the growth of which is conjectural to have been caused by the perversion of the kindly order induced by the reach of the colonialist Europeans. 5I argue that modernity and the formation of formal governmental institutions and frameworks of power merely perpetuated Clientelism and provided new avenues for the patron-client relationships based on new networks of power. What had always gone on before merely was allowed to operate in a new arena. African politics became politics of the belly, where individuals used creation office for private gain. The scarcity of resources in Africa being as it is, if one individual holds an office where he/she controls resources or power politics becomes a way of utilising patron-client networks to conduct these resources and gain support and power. make patron/client relations not but the fundamental mode of access to the state and its resources, but also, as in pre-colonial society, the fundamental relationship between ordinary people and those with wealth or power. As before in pre-colonial society clientelism formed the origination of a persons power through the number of people he had domination and arrangements over, now in politics a persons policy-making power is based on how many people pledge support through reciprocal client-patron networks in return for favours.Clientelism hasnt been formed it has merely morphed into a new generation of deals. Where land was plentiful and populations small, wealth and power were measured in control of people, in having a large following of family and non-kin dependants. 7 In politics this clientelism has become diverse, not created by modernity but equal for its use in formal governmental positions. Peter Ekeh (1975) described this as being the formation in African society of two frequents, where Clientelism has been and always is the norm.That the similar political actors act in both systems of a Civic public and the Primordial public. The citizen in the Civic public works in the beaurocratic institutions of the state, in a supposedly amoral system. The citizen takes from his position and gives nothing in return. This is through clientelism and a network of contacts where state resources and power can be distributed in this way. However the same person in his Primordial public, more often than not associated with ethnic tribalism and belonging to an extended family/ community, gives out and gets nothing in return.Due to the affinity of this the actor is expected to do nigh(a) for his own community, by using his political position. The key idea in Ekehs scale then is that the good man carry part of the largesse of the civic public to the primordial public. This shows the complex links between the old clientelism networks and what I will argue as the more modern stylised tribal relationships in African society. Tribalism Tribalism in its present form in Africa however is not a traditional fit of African culture I argue as Clientelism had been, but a product of the development imposed on the locality by Colonialism.Colonialism and the societal and economic changes it brought with it created the consciousness of tribalism and strong ethnic identities that are present in modern Africa. That tribes were not traditionally based but created in a means to gain power, resources and recognition in the process of colonial modernising. The accumulating weight of evidence shows that African ethnicity and its relationship to politics is new not old a response to capitalist modernity shaped by similar forces to those related to the development of ethnic nationalism in Europe since the late nineteenth century. This is not to say there were not tribes in the pre-colonial era, but I believe what tribes existed there were, not so ethnically divided. That the tribes were various groups of mixed subspecies and language peoples who were in a constant state of flux, without the amend ethnic boundaries one finds today. Pre-colonial political and socio-cultural boundaries were marked by blurriness and flexibility and Africans existed within a truthfulness of multiple, overlapping and alternative collective identities. 9 What created these tribal identities therefore if they were not present in traditional African society was the stretch of colonialism.Europeans were of the assumption that African tribes were the prat of society. That the tribes had neat compa ct boundaries and consisted of culturally like peoples. This assumption I argue was the basis for tribal creation, as the missionaries especially and other state institutions sought to formalise and categorize these tribal units. The recording of culture and the belief to a whole area of a supposedly local language, which in many cases was merely a local dialect, began to bring differing peoples together.This wiped out some cultural differences and creating false collectives of tribal peoples often not historically related, but brought together by colonial boundaries. The political theory and culture of colonialism, especially in the imagining of African societies by colonial officials and European missionaries, provided the dominant cognitive context moulding the finesse of tribes and their customs by Africans themselves. 10 If the colonial rulers and administration could claim links with these tribes then, through working with the traditional ruling groups in Africa they gaine d authenticity in their operations and ruling of the area.By working with these fixed tribes, the colonial rulers could section and control the local populace by breaking it down into smaller loyal groups. In reality the creation of tribes made it easier for the colonial beaurocracy to rule. Each administrative unit ideally contained a single culturally and linguistically homogenous tribe in which people continued to live within the natal institutions and were subject to tribal discipline through local structures of authority. 11Although this was a key content in the creation of Africa tribalism however, I believe that the stronger reason for the formation of tribes was for political gain and recognition. Due to this European notion of African tribalism, in order to hold power with the colonial administration actors must be part of a clearly fixed ethnic group. This created political tribalism, which was the creation of ethnicities by elite groups in African society to gain acces s to resources and to seek the foundations for a conservative modernisation.In short it was the utilization of tribal ethnic identities by Africans themselves for political and economic gains in the face of colonial changes. Ethnic collective action, according to Mozaffar, is predominantly a process of strategic political interaction between self-interested actors with divergent interests. 12 Ethnic conflict Ethnic Conflict has both strong links with tribalism and clientelism in Africa. I believe its origin is not so easy to pinpoint as it has been for tribalism and patron-client relations but that ethnic conflict is merely a product of the two.It was evident in pre-colonial society and was heightened and exacerbated by the modern formation of tribes in the colonial era as I have antecedently described. Ethnic Conflict was present in traditional African society. African society had never been egalitarian in nature, and a society in which there are unequal power relations is in the long run to have conflict in its midst. Pre-colonial societies were therefrom full of conflict and competition, instability and change. What I believe was created by the form of colonial development placed on Africa was the summation in ethnic tensions as new tribes and identities were created.Resources in Africa are stillness scarce and the modern beaurocratic frame work and political distribution of power has led to ethnic conflict becoming more bumpy and modern in its use of state of war and state apparatus. The tribal divisions between the Hutus and Tutsis and the turn up Rwandan war and genocide are examples of this. As the colonial era created false republic borders this conflict now often seeps out between neighbouring countries, comprising of different tribal identities over land and resources.I believe the colonial era did not create tribal conflict but merely change the scale that it is played out upon and provided it with state apparatus, militia, armies that now take conflict into a modern era, on a wider and more devastating scale. Conclusion It is clear to see then that tribalism, ethnic conflict and clientelism, although elaborately related all have different origins. I advocate however that they were all evident in some way or form before any type of modernity was present in Africa.Although I believe Clientelism and ethnic conflict were not created by the development in the colonial era they were not resolved or prevented by colonial restructuring. They still persist today. Ethic conflict I argue was present before the reaching of the Europeans in Africa on a situate scale as fighting between the complex and varied tribes on the continent. With the arrival of colonialism I believe it was merely aggravated by the adaptation of formal tribes and the postulate in politics for scarce resources, power and recognition.I argue that it has merely able and become a more near problem as the apparatus of state have been used to fight w ars etc. The conflict now envelops far large groups of people and even countries constructed by the colonial boundaries of ethnicity and country. Clientelism is pervasive throughout African politics. It is our prescriptive viewing of clientelism today, as corruption in Africa that I believe has led to some believing it was is not in human beings in pre-colonial society but a product of the introduction of formal politics and modernity in Africa. of idealising the virtues of a pre-colonial era supposedly devoid of corruption, the growth of which is supposed to have been caused by the perversion of the social order induced by the arrival of colonialist Europeans. What I believe we must ask however that we are applying the principles of the old African order rather to a new context of modern development and elective politics, etc where impartiality is presupposed. This is what makes us view clientelism as a modern phenomenon rather than its just place as a traditional form of deal ings in African society.This is the opposite with tribalism, where many suppose it as a traditional part of African society. It was this European view of tribalism that thought of it as such, however closer examination reveals it to be a politically dynamic and on purpose constructed phenomenon. It was not a traditional scenery of society that was carried over into colonial modernity but a means by which if African created a concrete identicalness they could gain power and resources in a system which colonialism brought about.