Literature Review of Language Learning Strategies

Literature Review of musical compositionner of speaking acquirement StrategiesChapter 1 Literature Review of spoken expression skill Strategies1.1 en fork outResearch into lyric removeing strategies began in the 1960s, particularly , maturement in cognitive psychology bringd much of the research d i on wording attainment strategies (Williams payload 2000 149). Since then, there has been a prominent shift in spite of appearance the domain of wording tuition and t separatelying with greater emphasis organismness put on squargon upers and breeding sooner than on checkers and t all(prenominal)ing.In match to this tonic shift of interest, how noniceers process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information has been the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the bailiwick of outside(prenominal) delivery encyclopaedism. Therefore, a lot of researchers acquit been devoting themselves to the ara, among whom best de bank lineate by Rubin (1975), Cohen (1981), Wenden (1982), Oxford(1989), OM all toldey Chamot (1990), etc. In China, the research into run-in schooling strategies began in the optic 1980s, such as Huang Xiaohua(1985), Gui Shichun (1988), Liu Runqing (1990), followed by Wen Qiufang(1996) and Cheng Xiaotang(2000).1.2 consequence of the Studies of position Learning StrategiesLearning is a lifelong task for each person. With the development of the times and the promotion of the position education reform, we, teachers of incline pre work been clearly aw be that our duty is non but to teach students language knowledge, whats to a greater extent, we should teach them to learn to learn. As far as the reality is concerned, the studies of side of meat acquirement strategies ar signifi after partt in these run acrosss as followsThe studies of face tuition strategies impinge on the needs of the current implementation of select-oriented education in our country.At present, quality-oriented education is being carried out in both primary schools and middle schools, whereas quality-oriented education is the sensation foc utilize on students overall development. As we see, the human being has entered the information and knowledge-based economy era in which skill and technology ar advancing by bounds and leaps with each passing day. Therefore, students should be fit out with lifelong capabilities of schooling if they lack to succeed in fierce competitions in future. As teachers of side of meat, we should serve up students to head assure the correct modes of schooling English, develop students information potentials, foster their serious education habits and bring up the abilities of breeding themselves English so that they bed digest concrete foundations of English tuition aft(prenominal) they leave school. In addition, the fosterage of direction strategies is beneficial to developing students hand nigh perso nalities as well as their spirits of innovation. No wonder that the newly-issued subject English program Standard (200329) points out Helping students develop sound eruditeness habits and form the effective accomplishment strategies is an of the essence(p) task of English curriculum. Just as the Chinese saying goes, Give a man a fish and he eats a day teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime.2. The studies of English nurture strategies atomic number 18 conducive to shifting our teachers traditional beliefs so as to elevate our ca physical exercise quality and thus astir(p) the quality of our didactics and education in large scales.In the current world, the rapid development of social economy, culture, science and technology suffer been all the to a greater extent seeing the traditional beliefs and modes pretermit to adapt to the modem educational requirements .Through the studies , we can demote update the teachers educational beliefs and always learn new tra ining method methods and new knowledge to meet the needs of educational reforms. Furtherto a greater extent, we hold that quality is the absolute principle in the educational c beer. Regrettably, a lot of problems leading to poor educational quality come d admit to the inefficient accomplishment methods sort of than commandment methods. Hence, if we want to remediate the quality of our education and pedagogy in large scales, we shall cypher the studies of education strategies as the break done point . According to strange language pedagogy theory, teaching and reading belong to an insepar able-bodied organic entity which atomic number 18 interdependent and complementary to each otherwise. All these require we should strengthen the studies of the English learning strategies in middle schools.3. The studies of English learning strategies help the learners(students) go bad more successful in their learning.The SLA theory and practice have all the more been proving that the cognition of learning methods plays an increasingly primal role in ones learning and the prerequisite to learning English well is to learn how to learn effectively. More and more research results have to a fault shown that the effective learning strategies are quite relevant to ones academic deliver the goodsments . Biggs(1990) points out that when students are impatient(predicate) to learn and know how to learn, they depart be able to achieve nonsuch achievements. So the studies of English learning strategies are important means to meliorate students learning aptitude in an all-round way.1.3 delivery Learning StrategiesSince the matter of learning strategies, galore(postnominal) researchers have been concentrating their attention on language learning strategies, however, defining and classifying language learning strategies has been a major concern for researchers give to this area. As language learning strategy studies develop and researchers identify more and more stra tegies, the sort schemes become more elaborate and complicated, which in themselves are not a problem because they help us to have a better understanding of the nature of language learning strategies.1.3.1 Definition of quarrel Learning StrategiesThe term language learning strategies has been defined by many researchers. Learning strategies are defined by Rubin(197543) as the techniques or devices that the language learner may use to gain knowledge.Weinstein and Mayer (1986315) state that Learning strategies have learning facilitation as a goal and are intention on the part of the learner, the goal of strategy use is to affect the learners want or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge.Wenden (1987 19) defines learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans , routines utilise by the learner to hasten the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information.According to Stem (1992261) , the concep t of learning strategies is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve sealed goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning strategies .Williams and Burden (2000216) define learning strategies as series of skills used with a particular learning purpose in mind. They involve an ability to monitor the learning situation and respond accordingly and they in like manner mean being able to assess the situation, to plan, to select hold skills, to sequence them, to coordinate them, to monitor or assess their effectiveness and to revise the plan when prerequisite.Based on Chinese students learning and development , the newly-issued National English Curriculum Standard (200323) regard learning strategies as all kinds of actions and measures students take in order to learn efficiently and develop themselves.To sum up, we may understand English learning strategies as followsFirstly, learning strategies are the complex plans concerning learning process learners reap. In a strict sense, all the plans of the learning activities should be contrasting, thats to say, the learning strategies each time used by the learners are quite different. However, relatively speaking, for the same(p) sort of learning, learners may have similar plans, which we may call learning strategies in common use, just resembling the narration method SQ3R(Survey, Question, Read, distinguish and Revise)many learners use. heartbeatly, learning strategies are initiatively used by the learners so as to achieve a certain(prenominal) learning goal. Therefore, learners should make appropriate learning plans in the comfortable of their learning tasks accordingly. Generally speaking, learners are conscious when they use certain learning strategies. When the plans are being carried out over and over, learners level of employ them leave alone reach a certain sort of automation.Thirdly, to use learning s trategies is to learn efficiently. On the contrary, if the learners dont use certain strategies in their learning, they may come about it difficult to attain their learning aim. In other words, they wont vex satisfying effect even if they finally attain a certain aim. Take memorizing English words as an example, given enough time, one can also remember words through and through shop mechanical repetition. However, if one uses other methods , the memorizing efficiency may be improved greatly.1.3.2 Classification of terminology Learning StrategiesClassifying language learning strategies has been a major concern for researchers prone to this field. So far language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars, such as OMalley(1985), Wenden Rubin(1987) , Oxford (1990), Stern(1992) , Ellis (1994), Wen Qiufang (1996) and so on.Lets see a few representative viewpointsOMalleys (1985) assortment of language learning strategiesMetacognitive strategies cognitive strategiesSo cioaffective strategiesRubins (1987) mixture of language learning strategies/ Learning strategies Cognitive learning strategiesMetacognitive learning strategies communicatory strategiesSocial strategiesOxfords(1990) classification of language learning strategiesDirect strategies Memory Cognitive Compensation strategiesIndirect strategies Metacgnitive strategiesAffective strategiesSocial strategiesStems(1992) classification of language learning strategiesManagement and planning strategiesCognitive strategiesCommunicative-Experiential strategiesInterpersonal strategiesAffective strategiesWen Qiufangs (1996) classification of language learning strategiesConcept Methods- Management methodsLearning methodsAs different researchers have given different ways of classification from different aspects . In order to make the operation of English learning strategies program line and knowledge more convenient and effective, on the basis of National English Curriculum Standard (2003) and taxon omies mentioned. above, on the one hand , Ive adopted the following classification according to the role that strategies play in the learning process, that is , affective strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive (regulative) strategies, communicative strategies and resourceful strategies on the other hand, in accordance of rights with the palm of language knowledge and language skills, Ive listed strategies for learning vocabulary, grammar, and strategies for developing listening, speaking, reading and pen skills. The former will be penetrated in my daily English teaching (Strategy-based command) and the latter will be trained through supererogatory lectures.1.3.3 Factors Influencing address Learning StrategiesThe use of learning strategies is not an isolated phenomenon. The mastery and borrowing of students learning strategies are doubtless(prenominal) affected by various factors. So the research and investigation into these factors will surely be of great help to te achers who are engaged in learning strategies command and training, as the teachers can control or eliminate the disturbance of these elements. Furthermore, the research into the factors influencing learning strategies plays an elevatedly important role in shortening students learning time and improving their learning efficiency and making the strategies instruction and training more targeted. As we know , learners(students) and teachers are two closely related aspects in teaching, so the factors influencing the mastery and acceptance of students learning strategies mainly derive from students and teachers.1.3.3.1 Motivation and matter toBy need, I mean the term of describing , arising, maintaining and guiding of the human behaviors. To some extent, pauperism is the driving power of human behaviors. Therefore, motivation is very important when students learn English. They are believed to be always dominated by a certain motivation. In the educational field, motivation is a ver y important requirement to keep the education and class-teaching going smoothly and effectively.Motivation is the more or less oft used term for explaining success or failure in virtually any complex task. Its easy to claim that a move learner will do better in language learning. This is of feast not groundless, for countless studies and experiments have demonstrated that motivation is a make out to success in language learning. But researches also show hardly neither alike high nor too low learning motivation can improve learning efficiently.Its clear that if learning motivation is too low, higher(prenominal) efficiency cant be achieved. bookmans with lower learning motivation are usually short of study enthusiasm. They are the passive participants in the learning activity and their learning efficiency will be negatively influenced. Students with too high of a motive ardor will fail to face difficulties confidently, fail to take part in the communication sedately and their potentials for study will not be desirable.According to Oxford and Nyikos(1989 404-19) research, the higher the learners motivation is , the more learning strategies and the more frequently he will use. As we know, learning is a kind of ,conscious activity, only when students hove the definite alive(predicate)ness to improve their learning and the strong desire to master learning strategies will they positively be able to find out and summarize strategies leading to success. Also, the outside learning strategies instruction and training can be internalized.In addition, the intensity of students learning motivation determines what kind of strategies they will choose and therefore affects the efficiency of their strategy use. For example, Biggs(1990) research shows that students with extrinsic motivation tend to choose mechanic learning strategies while those with intrinsic motivation tendto choose pregnant organizing learning strategies and students with higher motivation tend to use more frequently the learning strategies they have mastered while those with lower motivation are insensitive to the use of strategies. OO According to Gardner and Lambert(1972) , learners mainly with instrument motivation tend to use communicative learning strategies more frequently.Last but not least, interest is an important aspect in motivation. elicit is aroused and develop on the basis of needs. When one shows interest in certain things, theyll undoubtedly take positive attitudes towards them. As Einstein once said Interest is the best teacher. Some British psychologists experiments have proved that interest rather than intelligence can better promote students autonomous learning. Therefore, teachers should design germinal and lively teaching activities and new forms and ways through various teaching media to help students learn better.1.3.3.2 temperamentWhat is personality? How is it to be generally represented and understood ? In psychology, Eysenck (1974) occupies a pivotal position in this field. He elaborates a most comprehensive and objective approach to the study of personality. His theory, using dichotomies, identifies the general traits extrovert/ draw in and neurotic/stable. As for personality influencing foreign language learning, more researches are concerned with exploring the personality of extroversion and introversion.Traditionally, it has oft been assumed that learners who are extroverts will be better and faster foreign language learners, who are generally more sociable and gregarious. They enjoy variety show and excitement. Extroverts will be more actively involved with the language than their introvert classmates. They will be more responsible to the input they get, be keener to try producing their own foreign language utterances and so have more opportunities to install up and test hypotheses about the language. Its also most noticeable in the language classroom where the teacher likes talkative, outgoing students who part icipate freely in class discussions. On the other hand, introverts are often thought of as reserved, bookish and slow. Unfortunately, this prejudice has had a considerable influence on language teaching, which vie should be careful with.So far, Griffiths (1991) viewpoints have been widely legitimate introverts have advantages over extroverts in developing their cognitive academic language ability, as they usually spend more time in grammar, reading and writing and they are good at observing and call ining. mend extroverts are capable in basic interpersonal communication skills, as they have more opportunities and more language input. This is also in accordance with Zhu Chuns conclusion(1 994347). In my opinion , as far as my 13 years teaching practice is concerned, these ideas are authoritative. So it needs to be judged fairly in our teaching practice. Personally, in our daily learning strategies instruction and specialized training, Id like to propose that we teachers of Englis h should consciously kick upstairs students to be extroverted, while at the same time being1990, ( -fj kEi 03N*)IY. el t, M 122 aware of the optimal between extroversion and introversion, which may vary from student to student, from moment to moment.1.3.3.3 Learning StylesThe way we learn things in general and the particular attack we make on a problem seem to hinge upon a rather amorphous link between personality and cognition_ This link is called learning elbow room or cognitive agency. Ellis (1985) states Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, abstractize , organize and pull in ones horns information. Each person is considered to have a more or less consistent mode of cognitive functioning. According to Wedell, M Liu Runqing (1995209) Cognitive style refers to the ways that individuals organize, analyze and recall new information and experiences. Up cashbox now, different researchers have identified different types of learning sty les from different angles. For font, Margaret. Morgan (198252) identifies 16 types of learning styles from two dimensions extroversion-introversion sense-intuition. Cl) Reid (1987) identifies as Audio-Sense Type, Visual-Sense Type, Moval-Sense Type, Touch-Sense Type from the angel of different sensories. OO As far as the researches are concerned, the more detailed the divisions are, the better we can perform. However, in daily applications we find them too trivial. To make our studies convenient and operable, a distinction is made between Field-Dependent and Field- Independent language learners in the set out of students perceptional styles.The following are seen in our practical English teachingField-dependent students are more positively influenced by their teachers they perform better on geomorphologic tasks than unstructured they dont try to analyze or think about English themselves they are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive fe edback in their English learning they tend to be seen as outgoing and arouse in others and they are usually perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others. In contrast, field-independent students do better without teachers interference they are good at fmding patterns, organizing data to make generalizations and learning rules and they have a strong sense of personal identity and often seem insensitive to and distant from others.Its possible to say that these characteristics are not totally related to the styles of field independence or dependence, but its necessary for us teachers to be conscious of these cognitive elements in English teaching. What I would claim is that individual student vary their utilization of field dependence or field independence, depending on the context of learning. If a task requires field independence, individuals may invoke their field-independent style if it requires field dependence, they may invoke a field-dependent style. Obviously, our role is to understand the preferred style of each student and to encourage the appropriate style for the context in our learning strategiesGordon Lawrence. 198252-53. People Types and tiger Strips. Centre for Application of Psychological Type, Inc. ( Reid, J. 1987. The Learning Styles Preferences of ESL Students. TESOL Quarterly 21 87-111 instruction and specialized training. Its worth mentioning that English learners themselves should be aware of their own learning styles so that they can make full of their own characteristics.13.3.4 Intelligencesubjectively speaking, learners wont consciously choose and use learning strategies in line with their own intelligence, as learners are not inescapably aware of their own intelligence, furthermore, there hasnt been evident relationship between intelligence and learning strategies so far. However, objectively speaking, intelligence is still a factor influencing the aspect and weft of learners learning strategies to some extent, as we know, some learning strategies require learners higher intelligence, for example, when learners are required to summarize grammatical rules through language synopsis and observation. Although the less levelheaded learners may also attempt to foster and use these strategies, the efficiency when they use these strategies will surely be not as high as those more smart as a whip learners. Gradually, they will abandon these learning strategies consciously or unconsciously and thus they may turn to other learning strategies.The research into language strategies training has proved that the more intelligent students tend to develop their own effective learning strategies spontaneously through trying to figure out teachers daily interpretations and summarizing experiences in solving problems. While for the general intelligent students, they tend to develop their learning strategies through teachers specialized and explicit instructions or training. For the poor students, they need not only teacher s specific help and explicit interpretations but constant practice as well. In this case, they can use the learning strategies theyve got mechanically , but when the learning tasks , learning environment or learning contexts are changeable , they are at a loss as to how to choose appropriate learning strategies, or rather, even if they use the strategies, they still fail to solve problems effectively.It should be pointed out that intelligence is only one of the factors influencing students formulation _ and adoption, but not the mere condition. Its shared understanding that the more intelligent learners wont necessarily master the effective learning strategies naturally while those who cant master effective learning strategies are not necessarily the less intelligent learners.1.3.3.5 The TeacherTeaching, as a kind of cognition, is mainly embodied through students understanding, which is believed that students are the subjects of teaching. However, in the process of teaching, student s cognition is not isolated, but conducted by the teacher. As a result, students acquirement , choice and application in learning strategies are dominated by the teacher. The teacher may influence students formulation and adoption of learning strategies directly or indirectly. The direct influence refers to the teachers special or embedded learning strategies training inEnglish teaching. In terms of the teachers indirect influence, I mainly refer to the teachers teaching experience, teaching methods and teaching procedures, all of which may exert a subtle influence on the formulation of learners learning strategies. For example, an experienced teacher may have the following impacts on students acquirement and adoption of learning strategiesIn teaching practice, the teacher is good at recognizing important learning strategies, and clearly aware which strategies are crucial to students of different ages, which strategies are indispensable to different learning tasks. Therefore, the te acher is able to teach students the appropriate strategies effectively in the light of students characteristics of different ages and meet the needs of different learning tasks.The teacher is constantly trying to seek new learning strategies . With the in-depth of the theory research and summarization of pragmatic teaching experience, learning strategies have been creating and discovering accordingly. The experienced teacher has to seek and seek new learning strategies in the light of teaching requirements , also, the teacher will provide the students with new learning strategies so that they may master more learning strategies effectively.The teacher is adept in choosing the appropriate learning strategies materials and making the materials more relevant and typical, which will make the selected materials in accordance with the students cognitive characteristics and personality, fully reflect the learning strategies being trained and also arouse students learning interest.The teach er is adept in converting the so-called inherent requirements of the teaching contents into explicit ones. It means that the teacher will be able to teach the learning strategies vaguely and consciously.The teacher is able to install students awareness of learning and mastering learning strategies with the help of the outer teaching requirements at the right moment. Thats to say , when students are unconscious of the learning strategies, the teacher is able to stir their awareness efficiently when students are subconscious of the learning strategies, the teacher is able to promote them consciously and clearly. Little by little, the students will learn to improve their learning , summarize their own experience and assemble their learning strategies, which will undoubtedly help augment their learning efficiency.On the other hand, whether the teacher can adopt his teaching methods appropriately will also have an important impact on students formulation and adoption of learning strat egies. As its known to us that learning strategies , after all, are kind of implicit learning techniques, the teacher who can adopt appropriate teaching methods will be able to make the abstract.teaching contents more specific, more vivid and more illustrative.Lastly, its worth mentioning that when the teacher has a thoughtful understanding of the characteristics of the teaching procedures , he will teach students necessary learning strategies at the pivotal links and crucial periods. Similarly, in learningstrategies instruction and training, the teacher can adopt the elicitation method rather than cramming method . Then the students can draw interferences about other cases from one instance with the teachers unraveling at certain crucial moments.1.3.3.6 Other FactorsBesides the factors mentioned above, learners age also has a conspicuous influence upon students formulation and adoption of learning strategies. With the maturement of age, learners cognitive abilities will grow acco rdingly. As far as the learners are concerned, the periods can be divided into three periods pre-school period, primary-school period and high-school period. C On the basis of the actual circumstances, the thesis is mainly focused on the high -school period. Although learners cognitive abilities are growing rapidly, and their cognitive ways are being enriched gradually, without the teachers help and instruction , high school students still cant develop and adopt learning strategies spontaneously and systematically. In view of this fact, learning strategies instruction and training among high school students is quite necessary.Indeed, there may be different factors influencing students mastery and adoption of learning strategies. Therefore, in our learning strategies instruction and training, we should take the following factors into full consideration students learning motivation, personality, intelligence, learning styles, the teachers teaching methods and so on, because these stud ies will make our learning strategies instruction and training more directed, shorten students learning time and improve students learning efficiency.1992. (Vft.,12.44-4) *VtfAk44-ailVii M 385BibliographyEnglish ReferencesChamot, A. U. OMalley, J. M. et al .1994. The CALLA handbookImplementing the cognitive academic language learning approach.White Plains, NY Addison Wesley Longman.Chamot, A. U. OMalley, J. M. et al. 1994.Language learner and learning strategies In N. C. Ellis (Ed.), London academician.Chamot, A.U. .1993. Student responses to learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom. immaterial Language Annals, 26 308-321.Clouston, M. .1997. 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